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    Cover Image
    Natural Product Communications
    Volume 20, Issue 1
    Jan 2025
    ARTICLE
    Nutritional Composition and Bioactive Properties of Salicornia brachiata: A Comparison of Drying Methods
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    Yashodha Jayasundara, Nimashi Herath, Anupama Buddhipala, Mithila D. Bandara, Lalith Jayasinghe, Renuka Attanayake, Dinum Perera, and Priyani Paranagama
    ...
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    © The Author(s) 2025
    https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X251315822open_in_new
    Publisher SAGE Publications
    ISSN 1934-578X
    eISSN 1555-9475
    Received October 22, 2024
    Issue published January 2025
    Accepted January 8, 2025
    Online January 31, 2025
    eLocator 1934578X251315822
    Pages 13

    Abstract

    Objective

    Salicornia brachiata, an euhalophyte thriving in saline environments, can be processed into a dried powder (termed bio-salt) from its tender aerial parts. This study aimed to evaluate how three distinct drying methods; freeze-drying (FD), microwave-vacuum drying (MVD) as low temperature drying methods, and heat pump oven drying (HPOD) as a high temperature drying method, affect nutritional composition and bioactivities of S. brachiata. Ultimately, this research aims to identify the most suitable drying approach that retains bioactive and nutritional properties to preserve the health benefits of bio-salt.

    Methods

    The aerial parts of S. brachiata were washed, air-dried overnight, and then subjected to various drying methods. The proximate composition, colour measurements, mineral composition, and microbial quality of the dried powders were evaluated. The lipid extracts were analyzed using GC-MS and the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the resulting powders were assessed.

    Results

    Among the methods, FD best preserved the plant's color and yielded the highest levels of carbohydrates (42.64%), crude fat (0.88%), and dietary fibers (29.72%). Methanolic extracts of FD powders exhibited the highest phenolic content (43.68 ± 0.04 mg GAE/g DW) and superior antioxidant activity, with IC50 values of 8.72 ± 0.50 µg/mL for the DPPH assay and 19.49 ± 0.76 µg/mL for the ABTS assay, outperforming both MVD and HPOD. The FD extracts contained a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids compared to saturated fatty acids. In vitro antibacterial assays revealed that the FD extract at 100 mg/mL demonstrated the strongest inhibition against test bacteria. In an anti-inflammatory assay, FD was identified as the most effective drying method, yielding the lowest IC50 value of 314.78 ± 1.55 µg/mL.

    Conclusion

    These results suggest that freeze-drying is the most suitable drying method for preserving the bioactive properties and health benefits of bio-salt derived from the aerial parts of S. brachiata.
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  • Outline

    1. Abstract
      1. Objective
      2. Methods
      3. Results
      4. Conclusion
    2. Introduction
    3. Materials and Methods
      1. Sample Collection
      2. Sample Preparation and Drying
      3. Preparation of Extracts
      4. Determination of Color
      5. Nutritional Characterization
      6. Microbiological Analysis
      7. Chemical Profile of Secondary Metabolites
      8. Bioactivity Profiles
      9. Statistical Analysis
    4. Results
      1. Determination of Color
      2. Nutritional Characterization
      3. Microbiological Analysis
      4. Chemical Profile of Secondary Metabolites
      5. Bioactivity Profiles
    5. Discussion
    6. Conclusion
    7. Acknowledgements
    8. Declaration of Conflicting Interests
    9. Ethical Approval
    10. Funding
    11. ORCID iD
    12. References
  • Materials

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    Figure 1.
    Salicornia brachiata plants in the salt marshes of Puttalam, Sri Lanka.
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    Figure 2.
    Dried powders of S. brachiata; (a) MVD, (b) FD, and (c) HPOD.
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    Figure 3.
    Effect of different drying method on proximate composition of S. brachiata. Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates.
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    Figure 4.
    Effect of different drying methods on the level of Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Phosphorous (P), and Potassium (K) in S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying. Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates.
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    Figure 5.
    Effect of different drying methods on the level of Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), and Lead (Pb) in S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying. Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates. * < detection limit (0.1 µg/g).
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    Figure 6.
    Effect of different drying methods on the level of amino acids in S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying. Each bar represents mean value of 3 replicates.
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    Figure 7.
    Effect of different drying methods on total phenolic content (A), total flavonoid content (B), and condensed tannin content (C) in extracts of S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying. Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates.
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    Figure 8.
    Effect of different drying methods on DPPH (A) and ABTS (B) radical scavenging activity of methanolic extracts of S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying, Standard - Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates.
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    Figure 9.
    Effect of different drying methods on ferric reducing absorbance power values (A) and anti-inflammatory activity (B) of methanolic extracts of S. brachiata. MVD - microwave-vacuum drying, FD - freeze-drying, HPOD - heat pump oven drying, Standard - Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Each bar represents mean ± standard deviation of 3 replicates.
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    subtitlesTable 1.

    MVD†FD‡HPOD§
    Proximate composition (g per 100 g of dry matter)
    Moisture5.23 ± 0.12b6.62 ± 0.09a4.74 ± 0.10c
    Total ash38.6 ± 0.19b32.9 ± 0.15c41.5 ± 0.23a
    Crude protein9.53 ± 0.09a9.55 ± 0.09a9.24 ± 0.12b
    Crude fat0.81 ± 0.06a, b0.88 ± 0.07a0.75 ± 0.02b
    Crude fiber5.74 ± 0.10b7.41 ± 0.14a4.85 ± 0.11c
    Total carbohydrate40.06 ± 0.13b42.64 ± 0.13a38.90 ± 0.11c
    Total dietary fiber23.75 ± 0.57c29.72 ± 0.50a25.57 ± 0.07b
    Salt (as NaCl)40.30 ± 0.02a39.25 ± 0.11a41.25 ± 0.11a
    Color measurements
    L*39.74 ± 0.42c67.22 ± 0.30a41.18 ± 0.20b
    a*−6.08 ± 0.09b−11.72 ± 0.06c−0.35 ± 0.11a
    b*20.48 ± 0.47b24.31 ± 0.13a17.67 ± 0.32c
    Minerals
    Sodium (Na)mg/g129.73 ± 0.15c143.70 ± 0.44b150.20 ± 0.53a
    Calcium (Ca)2.92 ± 0.05c3.39 ± 0.09a3.18 ± 0.01b
    Magnesium (Mg)9.47 ± 0.06a9.00 ± 0.03b9.40 ± 0.05a
    Phosphorous (P)16.43 ± 0.31a, b16.10 ± 0.36b17.00 ± 0.30a
    Potassium (K)14.43 ± 0.06a14.57 ± 0.12a12.56 ± 0.05b
    Copper (Cu)µg/g5.02 ± 0.11b5.75 ± 0.20a5.88 ± 0.06a
    Zinc (Zn)7.25 ± 0.08c14.69 ± 0.61a10.63 ± 0.34b
    Iron (Fe)38.10 ± 0.61c206.23 ± 5.20a63.74 ± 1.36b
    Arsenic (As)0.27 ± 0.61c0.31 ± 0.01b0.39 ± 0.01a
    Cadmium (Cd)0.49 ± 0.01a0.16 ± 0.00b0.15 ± 0.00b
    Lead (Pb)<0.1 *<0.1 *<0.1 *
    Microbial quality
    Aerobic mesophilic bacteriaCFU/g1.2 × 10³2.4 × 1041.6 × 104
    Escherichia coliMPN/gn. dn. dn. d
    Yeast and moldsCFU/g504.5 × 10²1.5 × 10²
    Salmonella spp.Per 25 gAbsentAbsentAbsent
    The Proximate Composition, Color Measurements, Mineral Composition and Microbial Quality of S. brachiata Subjected to Different Drying Treatments.
    †
    microwave-vacuum drying, ‡freeze-drying, §heat pump oven drying. L* (lightness), a* (green-red), and b* (blue-yellow). The values are the means ± standard deviations for three replicates and those in the same row not sharing the same superscript letter are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05). * Limit of detection µg/g, n. d: not detected.
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    subtitlesTable 2.

    Amino acid (AA)*MVD†FD‡HPOD§
    Non-essential amino acids (NEAA)
    Aspartic acid61.60 ± 1.50c129.47 ± 0.65a96.40 ± 1.21b
    Glutamic acid60.73 ± 1.27b71.13 ± 0.40a49.97 ± 0.06c
    Serine81.73 ± 1.01a80.40 ± 1.35a64.27 ± 1.04b
    Glycine55.80 ± 1.51a47.57 ± 1.27b22.73 ± 0.76c
    Arginine64.90 ± 2.00b76.17 ± 0.97a51.00 ± 0.46c
    Alanine43.27 ± 1.31a34.80 ± 0.90c37.23 ± 1.91b
    Proline457.13 ± 2.00a93.17 ± 1.03c322.80 ± 0.36b
    Tyrosine131.60 ± 1.31a106.40 ± 1.25c109.63 ± 0.64b
    Cystine302.20 ± 1.90a294.43 ± 1.58b271.57 ± 0.87c
    Essential amino acids (EAA)
    Histidine125.47 ± 1.27b422.77 ± 2.61a97.63 ± 1.16c
    Valine139.43 ± 1.00b112.37 ± 1.66c189.23 ± 1.08a
    Methionine59.90 ± 0.50a56.30 ± 1.71b49.77 ± 1.50c
    Phenylalanine90.00 ± 1.28b91.50 ± 1.25b111.37 ± 1.25a
    Threonine587.67 ± 3.23a78.80 ± 0.60c215.53 ± 0.80b
    Isoleucine166.70 ± 1.00b154.43 ± 1.22c189.43 ± 0.76a
    Leucine168.93 ± 1.45b121.90 ± 1.51c192.40 ± 1.55a
    Lysine118.60 ± 0.66a69.43 ± 1.03c107.37 ± 1.37b
    ∑ EAA1456.701107.501152.73
    ∑ NEAA1258.96933.541025.60
    EAA/NEAA1.161.191.12
    EAA/AA0.540.540.53
    Amino Acid Composition (mg/kg) of S. brachiata Subjected to Different Drying Treatments.
    †
    microwave-vacuum drying, ‡freeze-drying, §heat pump oven drying. The values are the means ± standard deviations for three replicates and those in the same row not sharing the same superscript letter are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05). * Tryptophan has not been measured.
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    subtitlesTable 3.

    Compound nameCommon nameRetention time (min)[% FA/total FA]
    Drying methods
    MVD†FD‡HPOD§
    Tetradecene 19.5trtrtr
    Hexadecene 22.6trtrtr
    Tridecanoic acidMyristic acid22.61n.d.n.d.0.41 ± 0.01
    Hexadecanoic acidPalmitic acid25.2518.74 ± 1.7136.61 ± 6.9236.27 ± 2.80
    Octadecanoic acidStearic acid26.652.16 ± 0.382.18 ± 0.483.47 ± 2.01
    Docosanoic acidBehenic acid32.173.42 ± 1.48n.d.n.d.
    Tricosanoic acidLignoceric acid35.704.131.17tr
    ∑SFA %  31.2638.7940.15
    9,12-Octadecadienoic acidLinoleic acid27.2810.59± 1.7819.13 ± 4.7417.04 ± 2.46
    9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acidα-Linolenic acid27.5941.21 ± 4.0840.89 ± 3.8448.73 ± 9.94
    ∑USFA %  51.8060.0265.77
    ω-6/ω-3  0.250.470.35
    GC-MS Analysis of the Lipid Extract Obtained from Dried Powders of S. brachiata Tender Aerial Parts.
    †
    microwave-vacuum drying, ‡freeze-drying, §heat pump oven drying. Unless otherwise indicated, the match factor for the identified compounds was > 80%. Results are given as [% FA/total FA]. tr: trace amount, n.d.: not detected. Values represent the mean in triplicate (n = 3).
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    subtitlesTable 4.

     MVD‡FD‡HPOD§
    TPC (mg GAE/g DW)38.00 ± 0.07c43.68 ± 0.04a42.86 ± 0.01b
    TFC (mg CE/g DW)33.78 ± 0.00c72.44 ± 0.01a52.00 ± 0.00b
    CTC (mg CE/g DW)14.44 ± 0.15a14.32 ± 0.19a14.32 ± 0.24a
    Total Phenolic Content (TPC), Total Flavonoid Content (TFC), and Condensed Tannin Content (CTC) in Extracts of S. brachiata Obtained Using Three Drying Methods.
    †
    microwave-vacuum drying, ‡freeze-drying, §heat pump oven drying. Values represent the mean ± SD in triplicate (n = 3) and those in the same row not sharing the same superscript letter are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05).
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    subtitlesTable 5.

     IC50 values (µg/mL)
    Methanol ExtractDPPHABTSAnti-inflammatory activity (50% stability dose)
    MVD†24.27 ± 1.065b32.867 ± 0.42b394.36 ± 3.96b
    FD‡8.717 ± 0.501c19.49 ± 0.76c314.78 ± 1.55c
    HPOD§39.40 ± 0.13a51.75 ± 0.641a493.52 ± 1.97a
    Standard5.29 ± 1.0437.37 ± 4.87106.57 ± 9.32
    Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Antioxidant Activity (IC50 Values, µg/mL) of Methanol Extracts of S. brachiata Obtained from MVD, FD, and HPOD.
    †
    microwave-vacuum drying, ‡freeze-drying, §heat pump oven drying. BHT was used as the positive control for DPPH and ABTS assays and Aspirin was used for anti-inflammatory assay. Values represent the mean ± SD in triplicate (n = 3). In each column, different letters indicate significant differences.
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    subtitlesTable 6.

    Bacteria strainStandard (Amoxicillin) 500 µg/mL S. brachiata aerial parts extracts (mg/mL)Standard (azithromycin) 0.1 mg/mL
    Extract100502512.5 
    Escherichia coli3.00MVD3.332.441.991.943.10
    FD3.552.512.051.98
    HPOD3.531.971.981.98
    Staphylococcus aureus3.10MVD2.942.381.901.554.00
    FD3.032.541.971.94
    HPOD3.022.041.961.33
    Bacillus subtilis1.41MVD3.062.352.001.944.20
    FD3.132.292.071.57
    HPOD3.051.981.871.21
    Pseudomonas aeruginosa1.73MVD2.922.001.551.384.00
    FD3.062.351.961.51
    HPOD3.002.051.991.30
    Antibacterial Activity of S. brachiata Extracts Evaluated by Well Diffusion Method.
    NS: No sensitivity. Values represent the mean in triplicate (n = 3).
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